
As a little girl every day was filled with something naturally spectacular to view and
experience. A tree was never just a tree, it was a bigger than life teacher, long time friend and
story teller, a plain old rock might as well have been a sparkling diamond for how much it was valued. The world
and all it's living inhabitants, were something to study, feel, smell and gaze upon in wonder and amazement, to cherish and
hold sacred. I shall never forget my parents cutting down some trees in the yard and me curled all up on my
bed wheeping for the loss. The surrounding energy of life filled me with a yearning and passion.
The philosophy to treat all sentient beings
with the upmost of respect, and feeling was nurtured and evolved via truly living among the wilds of nature and getting
down at it's level, to understand other worlds and lives. As an adult this philosophy has not changed, and transfers
over into providing the upmost of care and enrichment for the animals that reside at Wolf Echo Valley. But what is enrichment
and why is it important?
In the wild wolves spend their time focusing on key elements of
survival. Foraging for food/seeking out prey sources, establishing good relationships with pack members, securing a mate /procreating
(mating to have pups) for the future of the pack, protecting habitat from other wild canids (such as wolves and coyotes that
may compete for food/territory resources), and watching out for dangers such as hunters. In the wild wolves
are continuously stimulated mentally, and physically via their natural surroundings , this keeps wolves alert, attentive,
and thriving.
But captivity/zoos/wildlife facilities in the past
have not served wild animals as well as their natural environmental upbringing does. Due to lack of challenging activities
and objects for their emotional and physical well being, animal behaviorists, caretakers, scientists/biologist started to
see an alarming rate of captive wild animals displaying disturbing emotional and physical symptoms such as pacing, self mutilation,
catatonic movements, aggression, hostility, depression, illnesses created by stress, and more. Experts in
the field started to realize if they cannot place the wild animals back into the wild, they must do what they can to bring
the wild to the animal in captivity, in order to stimulate their natural behavioral patterns.
Here at AWA-AWE, the wolves physical and emotional well being is
of the upmost importance. We strive, and will only continue to strive to provide as natural a life as is
possible in captivity to our captive born ambassadors. To achieve this, their natural habitat and behaviors (wolf
ethology) have been thoroughly studied in order to provide all the necessary stimulations, to keep the wolves content and
stress free.
Enrichment
Some of AWA's suggestions and recommendations of Enrichment for wolves in captivity are as follows:
previously written/printed in A Wolf Encounters Copyright care guide:
Please be
sure to also visit REEC's site after the following list to better assess and evaluate your enrichment programs, they have
an awesome inspirational guide!
1) Ice Cubes either in the winter time or the hot dog days of summer, wolves
LOVE to play with ice! mix this idea up and freeze tuna juice or chicken broth and watch these yummy wolf pops go FAST!
2) Puzzle Balls/Buster Cubes: These balls have a stategically placed
hole in a tough rubber form where you can place tasty dry tidbits of food. When the wolf plays with these balls and it is
rolled just the right way, they are rewarded with a tasty treat!
3) Hanging Tire: Take an old car/truck tire one can use various sides
hang from a tree with a chain and place tasty treats inside watch them use their minds.
4) Scents: Take various natural non toxic oils or other non toxic
scents like vanilla extract, lemon, sprinkle cinnamon, spread mustard, etc place a few dabs around on the trees, on logs,
on rocks, plants watch them try and roll on the objects (scent roll) you can just see the smiles on their faces
5) kiddies pool: For a cheap fun source of water fun buy
a cheap plastic kiddies pool if you do not have an inground cement pool. Fill with water and watch the water and fur fly in
and out as the dig, and romp in the cool wet fun.
6) Stock tanks: Large farm stock tanks can also serve as great lazing
water pools, and ones the wolves cannot eat! Don't be surprised to spot a wolf simply laying emerged up to their
necks in these tanks. Old bathtubs can also be used.
7) Build a fun playground. Remember the old log balancing beams
at your school yards playground? well these can serve wolves just as well. Build some wooden platforms, a crawl tube,
a walkway/ramp leading up to a lookout tower area, use old tractor tires cut in half and plant into the ground upright for
some fun climbing aparatus' and launching/sitting /standing pads, build sandboxes, building cement/roick caves or underground
den/homes.
8) Large meaty Beef/Bison/ bones can provide hours of satisfactory
chewing, on top of cleaning the wolves pearly whites.
9) Boomer Balls: Come in various sizes
these are virtually indestructable and can provide a couple hours of fun exercise and mind stimulation.
10) Pasta Hang: Once in a while on special occasions cook up some
spaghetti and hang the noodles around on various tree branches around the habitat, watch them forage and hunt for these delicious
noodles.
11) Plant berry trees: (Saskatoon, choke cherry, wild raspberry)
within the habitats, wolves will happily spend some time picking berries (even delicately) off the trees and it will keep
them entertained
12) Carcass feeding: Feeding whole animals
(hide/fur/feathers/ bones included) help to stimulate and reinforce natural social hierarchy in wolf packs.
Feeding this way helps to provide a lot of mental and physical stimulation to the entire pack, not to mention the benefits
of an increased digestive and oral stimulation.
13) Old garage doors can be used as shelters from the rain, shade
from the sun (lean-to's) and platforms to lay on.
14)
Blowing edible bubbles this can be fun to watch the wolves run around chasing bubbles.
They come in varied flavors. We use edible bubbles from here
15) Throwing old dead logs and tree branches into the habitat this
brings new interesting smells with it
16)
Walks: Though some facilities do not agree with this policy , still other zoos and
centers have embraced the idea and take their socialized wolves out for walks around the grounds on chains, this brings about
not only physical stimulation, but mental stimulation due to new sights and smells. Pairing up wolves also gives them a friend
to run and play with to help keep their muscles strong.
17) Play/sing music: Do you love to sing? then what can be a
better audience than one whose only critque will come in the form of a song in return? So fine tune those pipes and
sing away! and make the hills around alive with music!
18)
Throw Snowballs: These are fun to make in the winter and throw
out and into the air towards the wolves, watch them bounce around in delight to try and capture these tasty snow cones!
add a bit of tuna or salmon juice on the snowball for an extra fun response!
19) Power/electric cable spools: These huge spools if you can get
ahold of them through your power/electrical company can provide some great climbing/tower/lookout apparatus for the wolves.
20) RawHide
Bones
21) Hidden MeatBalls: Hide a bunch of these throughout the enclosure,
and watch the animals follow the scent!
22) Food Pastes: Food ground into pastes and spread onto logs and
other items within the enclosures, dont be surprised if the wolf starts smelling like a fruit drink or a land fish!
23) Plastic Jugs and Bottles: watch carefully so injestion does not occur.
I love to throw these to the wolves, and watch how they bat these around for a while.
24) Tires : Tires of various shapes and sizes, from car to
large tractor tires. Tractor tires can be cut in half and placed upright into the ground to give the wolves something to jump
onto and play on.
25) Disco Ball: Disco ball placed outside of the enclosure as to
create moving spots of light throughout , promotes/ stimulates curiosity,chasing etc.
26) Hotdog stash: Hot dogs are a wolves best friend *grin* they will
literally do anything for these be it during a training session or simply to stash in different places in the habitat.
They will be sure to smile. Hotdogs are a stable treat around here and I buy them by the box load.
27) Fruits: Apples, pears, coconuts, pumpkins, melons throw these
to the wolves and watch them have loads of fun!.
28) SandBoxes: Wolves LOVE to dig, building them their very own sandbox
will provide a great time one can use old tires or rail ties to create the border of the box. Bring in a load of sand and
watch how this box soon becomes a favored spot .
29) Play various instruments: I have a variety of instruments
here such as flutes, and drums. Wolves love to hear other forms of music and they wont critique your work. Expect
a beautiful symphony in thanks.
30) Stuffies: All of my wolf pups are given a variety of stuffed
toys, every second hand store I visit I pick some cheap stuffies up. This continues even into adulthood with the wolves and
they absolutely love getting a new stuffie to throw around for awhile!
31) Create a large rock pile: Go rock hunting and bring back the
largest rocks you can find and build a large rock pile for the wolves to clamber around on.
32) Grass and Bush cuttings: We cut the grass and smaller bush once
a month around the ranch, the wolves LOVE to scent roll on such things and have a heck of a good time getting all green!!
Wolves Gone Wild!
33) Create look out tower areas/wolf tree houses: Wolves LOVE to
be up HIGH! they are like cats that way.
34) Agility equipment: Build an a-frame, swing bridge, and other
stimulative equipment to get wolves minds working.
35) Banana pops: I take whole bananas, dip them in chicken
broth then freeze.
36) remote control dubebuggy/truck/
and remote control flying machines (helicopters). We have something that looks like a little dragon fly,
that we use to fly around the enclosure. It is fun to see them watching and leap around in the air to try and catch
this thing. The remote control all terrain dune buggy is great to use around the perimeter/outside of the enclosure,
where they give chase but can't destroy it. If your habitat is big enough like ours is, it really gives them a stimulative
work-out!

REEC
The following Site (clock Logo) Regional Environmental Enrichment Conferences helps
all captive wildlife keepers to better their enichment progams, and to assess their current progams to see
if they are working to the benefit and not detriment to the animal. There is also a PDF one can click on upon entering the
site on the homepage towards the bottom called A keepers guide to evaluating enrichment This is an *excellent*
guide for any keeper to evaluate and assess progams by.
Click on The Logo |

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For Assessing Environmental Enrichment |
The Shape of Enrichment www.enrichment.org (everything enrichment a-z) and the above REEC combine to form "Shape-Regionals"
check the site out for more info.

Reading Material
All the following books I list and then some
are on this site for all to discover and enjoy. Please check this site out, it's a great resource for anyone's library!

To
find the following guidelines and more great ideas and resources please check out The Toronto Zoo at the below Link
Suggested Guidelines for Carnivore Enrichment
The order carnivora
include the felid, canid, ursid, raccoon, weasel, civet, and hyena families. This diverse group of animals shares a
common lineage, the possession of four so-called carnassial teeth. A minority such as wolves, weasels, otters, felines and
polar bears are still true meat eaters, yet most members of this order have adapted to a broader diet. Such animals are considered
omnivorous, insectivorous or herbivorous (Ewer, 1973).
Carnivores inhabit
every major ecosystem, including forests, deserts, grasslands and tundra. They have cursorial, arboreal, fossorial and aquatic
habits. Communication occurs socially through expression and posturing, scent marking, vocalizations and olfaction. Olfaction,
one of the primary senses in gathering information, is significant to carnivore behaviour, but vision and auditory senses
are also very important. They are primarily nocturnal animals with the exception of some species such as the cheetah, which
rely on daytime vision for hunting. Many are considered solitary but some exhibit cooperative behaviours with conspecifics,
such as coatis, in which males are solitary and females form tight social groups. Others, such as the mongoose, form groups
for defence against predators (Ewer, 1973).
Feeding strategies
among carnivores are generally similar in regards to hunting and foraging. Some species have special adaptations whereby they
rely on olfaction to pursue prey. Some hunt in packs while others locate prey using refined tactile system, hunt by ambush
or tunnel after prey. The very nature of opportunistic carnivores is to hunt and forage for their food, often spending hours
doing so (Macdonald, 1984). Wild felines and canines may spend hours crushing bone, tearing flesh and plucking fur from a
carcass while bears may spend approximately 80% of their time searching for food. Typical carnivore behaviours to consider
in an enrichment program include foraging, olfaction, digging, nesting, denning, courtship and sexual activity .
Captive carnivores
are known for exhibiting stereotypic, self destructive or abnormal behaviours. These behaviours can include overactivity,
inactivity, pacing, head swinging and over-grooming, many of which are frequently observed in bears, felines, canids, weasels,
civets and hyenas. These activities may be a method for animals to cope with inadequate, sterile environments, or they could
be expressing redirected searching behaviour such as mate finding, home range patrol, or hunting (Mellen et al., 1998). Loud
noises, construction, small quarters, being locked inside, expectations of food, once- a -day feeding, scheduled feedings,
and lack of novelty may also contribute to these behaviours. Evaluation of abnormal behaviours can help staff determine what
action should be taken to discourage these undesirable behaviours. Foraging, exploratory and play behaviours have all been
known to interrupt stereotypic patterns (Carlstead, 1998).
When developing
enrichment programs it is important to look at the natural history of each species. Social structure, habitat use, feeding
strategy, diet, primary senses and activity cycles should be used to plan enrichment (Shepherdson and Mellen, 1993). It is
important that staff, supervisors, and veterinarians be consulted before changes in daily care are initiated. The involvement
of other departments at individual institutions or experts in their field may help spark new ideas for enrichment. Who, how,
and when enrichment is delivered is important in planning enrichment. Forming a committee, or utilizing volunteers and docents
can be beneficial in the implementation of enrichment. An assessment of each enrichment activity is important in evaluating
and documenting what works and is beneficial to the species.
Exhibit Enrichment
Providing choices for captive animals allows them
a degree of control over their lives (Markowitz, 1998), such as the option of having shelter or sun, heated rocks, or cooling
systems. Complexity in the environment is important when designing a carnivore exhibit and enrichment should be included in
the initial phases when possible. Naturalistic enclosures may be difficult to change, however by designing truck access into
a new exhibit, large logs, rocks and substrates can be readily replaced. Adding substrates and new furniture on top of existing
concrete or tile floors can enhance older exhibits.
With some creativity, older exhibits can be renovated
into functional yet enriched environments. Vertical and horizontal spacing is important in terms of how animals utilize their
exhibits. Focus should be on quality rather than quantity of space. Many carnivores are arboreal, arranging different levels
with perches, creating a 3-D appearance, provides complexity in the exhibit which allows for climbing, leaping and jumping
behaviours can promote activity (Mellen and Shepherdson, 1997). Moving perches can simulate the naturalness of trees, and
changing furniture can stimulate activity, as animals will likely explore their new surroundings. Ropes and vines can also
provide locomotion opportunities for some of the more arboreal carnivores such as binturongs, clouded leopards, margays, ringtails
etc.
Visual barriers in the form of vegetation or hollow
logs can provide privacy and a sense of security. Large rocks, trees or hilly landscapes can also create visual barriers that
may help decrease food competition and aggression within a population while also adding a sense of visual complexity where
the animals do not see their entire environment from all areas (Mellen et al., 1998). Trees, both natural and artificial,
provide rubbing areas and provide scratching, and climbing opportunities. Rotten logs, mounds of dirt and logs drilled with
holes and stuffed with food items offer animals a chance to forage, rip apart and dig for insects and other treat items. Living
trees and vegetation provide shade and cool areas; however, with some animals trees may need to be protected with hot-wires
or tree skirting to prevent destruction or escape. Natural burrows or dens may increase reproductive activity.
Substrates such as mulch, sand, soil, moss, leaf
litter and grass provide different textures for foraging and bedding. Water features such as pools or streams can provide
enrichment to carnivores that may swim or fish. Deep and shallow pool areas offer choices to aquatic carnivores, therefore
creating a more interesting environment.
In addition to exhibit areas, holding areas should
be carefully planned. Taken into account should be whether the animals will spend most of their time in this area and if so
should it simulate a natural environment? Enrichment features should be provided especially if the animals spend most of their
time off exhibit. Non-natural items can be utilized in holding areas if they cannot be used in the natural enclosure. Designing
specific areas for medical procedures with squeeze cages or training areas should also be considered, as they can be beneficial
for veterinary exams and animal training programs, which can also be a challenging form of enrichment.
Dietary Enrichment
Foraging behaviours are important to the well
being of carnivores. Novel presentation of food items can be accomplished by hiding food throughout the exhibit in brush piles,
mulch pits, in logs, under rocks and high in trees or perches. The method and timing of food delivery, such as randomized
feeding schedules, the unpredictability of delivery , and increased number of feedings can help encourage foraging and reduce
the frequency and duration of stereotypic behaviours (Shepherdson et al., 1993). Variety, such as alternating whole or chopped
food items, is significant in both food delivery and method to discourage boredom. Encouraging stalking, crouching, chasing,
leaping, reaching, grabbing, pulling, jumping and climbing for food allows for natural hunting behaviours. Meat sticks, treat
boxes, lures, cowtails and horsetails can help elicit these natural behaviours.
Carnivores have the
capability of crushing bone and tearing flesh. Feeding carcass foods and bones can elicit natural behaviours and also leads
to healthier teeth. Crickets, mealwonns and fish are examples of natural prey items that can easily be fed live. Because carnivores
expend a considerable amount of energy foraging for food, efforts should be made to allow them to work for their meals. The
complexity of the food items offered adds an element of expending energy and increasing activity (UFAW). A polar bear having
to work for its diet which has been frozen in ice, or an ocelot that has to work for its food by leaping on a moving stick
to get to its food are only a few examples of the wealth of possibilities of dietary enrichment.
Social Enrichment/Olfactory Enrichment
Many institutions exhibit carnivores such as felines
or otters in pairs or groups. This does not always duplicate their natural social situations in which the animals are generally
solitary except during breeding. However, companionship in captivity can be beneficial as it can encourage healthy competition
as well as occasional aggressive tendencies and cooperative behaviours. Carnivores have complex social systems through communication
and scent marking by way of feces, urine, and glandular secretions which furnish conspecifics with information regarding animal
territories and movement. The function of social odours is often used for identification of individuals animals and reproduction
(Ewer, 1973). Carnivores, such as the skunk, have adapted a defensive system of using scent to ward off predators.
Extracts, perfumes, spices, hunting lures and
aromatic oils provide opportunities for carnivores to investigate, mark or rub on new scents. Bedding, feces or fur from prey
animals or conspecifics in another area can also stimulate the olfactory sense. Proper social situations can increase reproductivity
and the occurrence or natural social behaviours.
Interactions between caregivers and animals can be beneficial to animal well being. Providing a
positive and secure environment can lead to a trusting relationship. This relationship, especially with small felids, may
increase reproductive success and decrease pacing (Mellen, 1998; Poole, 1998).
Novel Enrichment! Manipulable Objects
Artificial and novel objects can encourage natural
behaviours via the expression of manipulation and exploratory behaviours. A feline may rip a cardboard box to shreds as if
it were its prey. The use of mechanical prey in which cheetahs pursue and capture a moveable target can be beneficial for
locomotor activity and mental stimulation (Lindburg, 1998). While the provision of novel items is important for stimulating
activity, removal of novel items for a period of time will help maintain interest when the item is again presented at a later
date.
Introducing novel objects outside of a holding
area where the animal can still view them can help desensitize the animals to the new objects, and thus potentially lower
stress levels. Animals may not react initially to a novel item or may react adversely to new objects in their environment,
but leaving the items in the enclosure for a period of time or offering them at later date can encourage interaction with
the items. A new approach to a device being offered can make a significant difference. It is important to remember that what
is successful with one animal may not work for another. Ideas from ungulate, bird or primates enrichment programs may be appropriate
for carnivores as well. Wild animals encounter unpredictable and stressful situations whereas their captive counterparts are
exposed to different and less frequent stresses. Providing negative stimuli may benefit animals by helping them to cope with
changes or uncertainty in their environment (Carlstead and Shepherdson, 1994). It is best to keep in mind the behaviour of
the individual species, its medical and behavioural background when formulating enrichment ideas.
Safety Considerations
Veterinary and staff approval is important when
designing enrichment ideas. Animals should be observed for problems when offered new enrichment. Ingestion of novel
items such as plastic containers, traffic cones, burlap bags, ropes etc., can cause serious medical problems. Individual animals
may react differently to enrichment items offered. For instance, a mountain lion at one institution may play with a plastic
jug, biting and crushing and swatting it around, while similar animals at another institution may choose to eat such items.
Rope or chain are often used for perching or to
hang objects. To ensure that animals can not become entangled, such items should be hung so there are no loops at attachment
points, or that a foot, leg, or head can not get caught. In addition, animals may have a tendency to ingest ropes used for
hanging objects. Chain or natural rope may offer more feasible options and should be used when possible.
Horticulturists can be consulted regarding plant
toxicity. Some carnivores eat plants; therefore it is wise to be aware of the types of vegetation that are utilized in carnivore
enclosures. Browse should be rinsed to rid it of any chemicals if the source is unknown, especially if it is donated or retrieved
from the city forestry department. Feces from other animals which is offered to carnivores should be checked for parasites
on a routine basis.
Carcass food should be obtained only from reliable
sources. Many companies and private individuals breed animals specifically for this purpose. If road kill animals are used
in carcass feeds, only freshly killed animals that have not been sitting in the elements for hours or show any signs of parasites
should be used. Freezing a carcass for several days can also help reduce the risk of parasite infestations.
Some animals may become possessive of enrichment
items and aggressive toward cagemates. To help reduce the potential of aggression, several of the same item can be scattered
throughout the exhibit, providing ample activity for all inhabitants.
Particularly for carnivores., the ability to express
predatory behaviour can be important aspect of a captive lifestyle. However, fake prey items (scarecrows, etc.) should not
resemble humans in any way, to minimize the potential of predators learning that it is acceptable to attack humans. In addition,
it is important to realize the risk to the safety of the animals and staff when new items or staff (volunteers, docents, etc.)
are utilized during media events or special events that attract large crowds. Animals may show increased anxiety or aggression,
which coupled with the potential of inexperienced staff making mistakes in animal shifting, can result in the animals posing
danger to each other, the staff or the public.
The following are examples of enrichment that
may be appropriate for carnivores, as well as an overview of safety issues that should be considered in the implementation
of enrichment.
Exhibit Enrichment
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Visual barriers for privacy
and for stalking prey: hollow logs, trees, live vegetation, termite mounds, mounds of dirt, large rocks and other topography,
areas which are visible to the public but allow the animals to feels hidden and secure
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Trees/logs: natural or artificial,
log structures to climb, rub or scratch on, drilled with holes for treats, hollow logs
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Natural substrates to provide
digging opportunities or for scattering or hiding food: mulch, sand, gravel, soil, moss, leaf litter
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Water features: shallow and
deep pools, streams, waves
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Plants: for visual barriers,
grasses for grazing, herbs
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Vertical and horizontal space
usage: to provide complexity, jumping and climbing opportunities
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Removable perching at various
levels which can be changed periodically
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Heat/Cold/Mist: heated rocks,
cooler or misting system
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Natural holes or dens
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Holes placed high in rocks
for hiding food and to encourage jumping
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Concealed nest boxes
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Rotation of exhibit furniture
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Vines or ropes
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Training devices such as
squeeze cages
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Rotation of carnivores
through "prey" exhibits. |
Dietary Enrichment
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Novel live prey: feeder fish,
mealworms, crickets, grasshoppers, grubs, lizards, rodents
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Carcass foods: chicken, rabbit,
rats, mice, lizards, guinea pigs, quail, deer, elk, road kill animals
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Crayfish, clams
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Bones: horsetail, knuckle,
ribs, chicken necks
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Hides from rabbit, deer,
elk
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Varied feeding schedules
and several feedings per day
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Brush pile feeder: food items
hidden in piles of branches
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Meat and blood trails
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Meat sticks: animal jumps
on or reaches to grab food on stick, bungee cord or spring
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Honey and feeder logs (made
from natural logs)
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Blood, fish, meat, fruit,
vegetable popsicles
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Scattered or hidden food
items
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Variety of chopped and whole
food items
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Melons, gourds, pumpkins
to provide different textures
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Lures: rabbit, rat
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Cowtails, horsetails
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Eggs: raw and boiled
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Browse
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Mealworm or cricket
dispensers (PVC pipe dispensers) |
Novel Enrichment/Social Enrichment
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Olfactory: fur, urine and
feces or substrates from prey/same species, extracts, spices, herbs, perfumes, bedding from prey species, hunting lure scents,
aromatic oils
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Boomer balls, Jungle balls,
balls with holes drilled throughout to create food dispensers
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Cardboard: boxes, paper towel
tubes, carpet tubes, cereal box with hide treats inside
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Grain bags, paper bags
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Burlap bags
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Kong toys
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Dog toys: leather dog chews,
Nylabones
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Plastic jugs or containers
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Artificial rat: remote controlled
rat that runs through hollow log
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Under ground food pipe: PVC
buried with food placed inside; can be covered with dirt
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PVC for balance: large pipe
that animals can walk through or walk on top of
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Tires
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Towels
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Beer kegs, barrels
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Attachments: chain, natural
rope, bungee cord to hang objects or food
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Feed box full of treats on
top of cage (animal must use log or rope to climb)
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Plastic traffic cones
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Timer release system: cricket
cannons or fish released at various times during the day
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Pine cones, palm fronds,
bamboo tubes
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Snake sheds
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Rawhide bones, pig ears,
hooves
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Feathers
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Brush piles
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Christmas trees
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Antlers
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Auditory: nature
sounds, sounds from same species |
References
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Carlstead, Kathy. 1998. Determining
the Causes of Stereotypic Behaviours in Zoo Carnivores: Towards Appropriate Enrichment Strategies. Second Nature: Environment
Enrichment for Captive Animals.
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Carlstead, K. and D. Shepherdson.
1994. Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Reproduction. Zoo Biology. 13: 447-458.
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Ewer, R.F.11973. The Carnivores.
Cornell University Press.
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Lindburg, D.G. 1998. Enrichment
of Captive Mammals through Provisioning. Second Nature: Environment Enrichment for Captive Animals.
|
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Macdonald, D. 1984. The Encyclopaedia
of Mammals. Equinox (Oxford) Ltd.
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Markowitz Hal and C. Aday.
1998. Power for Captive Animals: Contingencies and Nature, Second Nature: Environment Enrichment for Captive Animals.
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Mellen, I. D. 1998.
Optimal Environment for Captive Felids. Husbandry Manual for Small Felids. AZA Felid Taxon Advisory Group.
|
|
Mellen, J.D., M. P. Hayes,
and D. J. Shepherdson. 1998. Captive Environments for Small Felids. Second Nature: Environment Enrichment for Captive Animals.
|
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Mellen, J. D. , and D. J.
Shepherdson. 1997. Environmental Enrichment for Felids: An Integrated Approach. International Zoo Yearbook: 35: 191-197.
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Poole, T.B. 1998. Meeting
a Mammal's Psychological Needs: Basic Principles. Second Nature: Environment Enrichment for Captive Animals.
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Shepherdson, D. J; K. Carlstead;
J. D. Mellen, and J. Seidensticker. 1993. The Influence of Food Presentation on the Behaviour of Small Cats in Confined Environments.
Zoo Biology. 12: 203-216.
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Shepherdson D.,
and I. Mellen. 1993. First Environmental Enrichment Conference Portland Oregon, Workshop. |
Carnivore enrichment guidelines compiled
by Kayla Grams, Keeper: Arizona Sonora Desert Museum
Reviewed by: Gretchen Ziegler, Head keeper,
Sequoia Park Zoo David Shepherdson, Program Scientist, Oregon Zoo Jill Mellen, Research Biologist, Disney's Animal Kingdom
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